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INTRODUCTION
Cancer, a disease marked by the uncontrolled multiplication of cells, is a most prevalent cause of death internationally. Cancer is not a single disease, but a group of over 100 diseases, typically classified by the organ or tissue where the cancer originated. Currently, cancer is treated through a variety of methods, combining conventional approaches like surgery, radiation therapy and chemotherapy with more modern or targeted therapies such as hormone therapy, immunotherapy and nano therapy (Madihalli et al., 2022). The global increase in chronic diseases poses a significant challenge and rising health care costs are driving increased research interest. Various food items provide the public with various health benefits due to their secondary metabolites including reduced cancer risk (Christine et al., 2008).
In Pakistan, the annual age-standardized CC03 incidence rate is 5.4/100,000 women, with an estimated 4,762 new cases in 2023, and a mortality rate of 3.6/100,000 women from 3,069 deaths in the same year. CC03 is the third most frequently diagnosed cancer among women in Pakistan and the second most common in the 15-44 age groups, with the HPV being the primary cause (Singh et al., 2023). A virus infects cervical cells, where it’s E6 and E7 proteins block the normal function of p53 and pRB. This allows the cells to grow out of control, leading to abnormal cell changes known as dysplasia. Cervical dysplasia can progress slowly over many years into Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia (CIN) and eventually invasive CC03 (Haiyan et al., 2016). BC04 is the most frequent type of cancer among women, in 103 out of 154 countries, cancer is the leading cause of death. In 2018, a total of 2.1 million new breast cancer cases were diagnosed, which accounted for 2.24% of all new cancer cases. The mortality rate for breast cancer was approximately 15.00% (Bray et al., 2018). CRC05’s global impact is shifting, while historically concentrated in developed nations, its incidence is growing in developing countries and the overall burden is expected to rise with population aging and the spread of "westernized" lifestyles, such as changes in diet and physical activity (Pasqualino et al., 2016). Worldwide, PC06 ranked as the 12th most frequent cancer which is also responsible for the 7th most cancer deaths (Junjie et al., 2021).
Diabetes is chronic metabolic disorder characterized by increased blood sugar level and inadequate insulin release. Type 1 diabetes is due to autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells while type 2 characterized by insulin resistance and progressive beta cell dysfunction. In diabetes, amylase and glucoamylase are responsible for carbohydrate breakdown into simple sugar which then absorbed through wall of small intestine into the blood stream which directly influence in blood sugar level. Inactivation of glucoamylase enzymes contributes to postpartum hyperglycemia in diabetic patients. Therapeutically available antidiabetic medicines exert their medicinal effect through various mechanisms such as elevation of insulin secretion, glucose absorption, and metabolism. Glucoamylase split these smaller sugar particles to release glucose (Whitcomb and Lowe, 2007). α-glucosidase is also a key enzyme; its inhibitors slow down sugar absorption, which decreases postprandial plasma sugar levels and blocks postprandial hyperglycemia (Kumar et al., 2011).
Most diabetes and cancer deaths are linked to modifiable lifestyle and environmental factors, such as obesity, poor diet and physical inactivity. Lifestyle and environmental factors including tobacco, obesity, alcohol and low levels of fruits, vegetables and exercise (Mingyang and Edward, 2015). Immune status, smoking habits and number of sexual partners are all factors that can influence the progression of an HPV infection to CC03 (Nainakshi et al., 2019). Common CC03 symptoms include vaginal bleeding that's different from normal pattern such as bleeding after sex, between periods or after menopause or changes in vaginal discharge, discomfort in lower back and lower tummy (Emma et al., 2012). BC04 symptoms can include a new lump or thickening, alteration in breast structure, nipple discharge, armpit swelling, skin changes like dimpling and redness (Alison et al., 2005). CRC05 symptoms included altered bowel habits, rectal bleeding, abdominal pain, weight loss, fatigue and a feeling of incomplete emptying (Margaret et al., 2011). PC06 often lacks early symptoms, with signs typically appearing at a more advanced stage including jaundice, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, vomiting, nausea, weight loss and sometimes new onset of type 2 diabetes (Jonathan et al., 2020).
The pathogenesis of CC03 is driven by persistent high-risk HPV infection, in which the viral onco-proteins E6 and E7 disrupt the function of the tumor suppressor proteins p53 and pRB which leads to unchecked cell proliferation and the development of abnormal cervical cells (Xulelian et al., 2018). BC04 arises from uncontrollable breast cell growth and division, which is triggered by genetic mutations. Oncogenes are mutated versions of normal genes that fuel cell growth. For instance, when the HER2 proto-oncogene is overactive due to mutation, the resulting oncogene (HER2-positive) signals breast cells to divide and multiply uncontrollably (Melisa et al., 2023). CRC05 progresses via one of three main molecular pathways including Chromosomal Instability (CIN), Microsatellite Instability (MSI) and the CpG Island Methylator Phenotype (CIMP), each characterized by distinct genetic alterations, leading to a heterogeneous disease with diverse clinical behaviors and treatment responses (Adria et al., 2024). PC06 forms tumors when cells in the pancreatic ducts develop genetic mutations that cause uncontrolled growth. Oncogenes activation (like KRAS), tumor suppressor genes inactivation (CDKN2A, TP53 and SMAD4) and signaling pathways dysregulation (like EGFR) are key mechanisms (Thomas et al., 2014).
Piper nigrum L., (PN01) member of Piperaceae and Syzygium aromaticum (SA02) member of Myrtaceae family; are the most commonly used spices, containing several beneficial phytochemicals with biological potential against chronic disorders like diabetes, obesity and multiple cancers (Parthasarathy et al., 2008). Piper nigrum L., (PN01) is routinely used condiments worldwide because of their countless advantages on human health. PN01 and SA02 contains alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, phenols and terpenes (Luca et al., 2023; Rubab et al., 2021; Neveu et al., 2010; William et al., 2004). PN01 possesses antibacterial, anti-diabetic and anticancer activity (Blessy and Gopinath, 2015). The secondary metabolites of SN02 are medicinally used in many countries as antimicrobial, analgesic, carcino-protective and sedative (Abd et al., 2014; Khan and Ahmad, 2012). Phytosterol found naturally in plants have major benefit is to reduce the blood cholesterol level and prevent the human body from coronary cardiac disease (Ostlund, 2002). Piperine, the active component of PN01, significantly reduces cell viability and colony formation in HeLa cells (Buranrat and Benjaporn, 2022).
GCMS spectrometry is a methodological approach which connects the characteristics of GC and MS to recognize the distinct phytochemicals from the extract (Skoog et al., 2007). This method offers high reliability and reproducibility, allowing for robust qualitative and quantitative analysis to be performed consistently across different labs and instruments. GC-MS is a well-established analytical tool for identifying unknown compounds by comparing their mass spectra, generated from unique fragmentation patterns, with reference spectra from spectral libraries. Gas chromatography can isolate vaporous and semi-vaporescent mixtures with significant constancy, however inadequate for their recognition. MS can give almost complete particulars of structure of maximum combination in a manner that they could be truly recognized, but it cannot isolate these immediately (Hussain and Maqbool, 2014).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Chemicals
All reagents and chemicals were of research grade chemicals and acquired by Sigma Aldrich, Merck. Glucoxidase kit was bought from the Madar Diagnostic which contain reagent with standard solution for testing of glucoamylase enzyme.
Plant material extraction
Piper nigrum dried fruit and Syzygium aromaticum dried flower buds were purchased from the herbal market of Karachi, Pakistan. After being authenticated by Prof. Dr. Mohtasheem Ul Hassan, Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan, P. nigrum dried fruits and S. aromaticum flower buds were cleaned by removal of extraneous particles and converted into powdered form by using a grinder. 10 g of PN01 and SA02 powdered spices were soaked into100 mL methanol in separate glass container for 20 days.0.1g/mL PN01 and SA02 extracts used for GCMS assay and then stored in airtight glass container and stored at room temperature. While, 20 g PN01 and SA02 spices powdered were macerated in 200 mL phosphate buffer solution of neutral pH for three days at room temperature. Phosphate buffer is used instead of solvents because it maintains the optimal physiological pH required for activity and stability of enzyme. These 10% phosphate buffer extracts (0.1 g/mL) were used in enzyme inhibitory assays at different parameters, including time interval, temperature, days, and pH. While, Performance was done in the research laboratory of the Department of Pharmacognosy and the Department of Biochemistry, University of Karachi, Pakistan.
Ethical statement
This article does not use any human participant or animal for secondary metabolites analysis.
Procedure for phytochemical recognition by GC-MS analysis
The compound identification of both spices' methanol extracts was done by observation of their MS division pattern with those saved in the digital library. GC-MS was performed on Agilent equipment 5975 series. Capillary column zebronzebron-5 containing 30 mx320 µmx0.25 µm film central width was utilized. Unadulterated carrier gas helium was employed at 1.5 mL/min flow rate and 44.635 cm/sec average velocity. 50ºC was the starting temperature automated to rise to 200ºC and later 300ºC for 20 min then leave it for 1:1202 min. Leave in solvent for 5 min, and scan time 200 ms. The phytochemical in both extracts were recognize by the retention times of every component, breakage design and MS feature supported by employing National Institute of Standard and Technology (NIST) Liberary. Quardapole detector employed for component recognition (Patil and Jadhay, 2014).
Glucoamylase inhibitory assay
Different parameters for glucoamylase activity in the presence of PN01 and SA02 extracts were performed. The glucoxidase kit was used with some modification with glucose as a standard. Various parameters of glucoamylase inhibition were determined by performing the enzyme and extract assay after different time intervals, including 10, 30, 60, 90, and 120 min., pH 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9; days 1, 3, 6, and 9; and temperatures of 27ºC and 37ºC. Readings were read by using a UV spectrophotometer at 546 nm using glucose as a standard (Kim et al., 2022). Standard glucose curve is present in supplementary file. Two-way ANOVA is used for statistical analysis. One glucoamylase unit is defined as “The amount of enzyme that breaks down starch to release1.0 µmol of glucose per minute in a pH 7.0 buffer.” 1 unit of plant extract inhibition activity was described as “the amount of inhibitor that cuts glucoamylase activity down by 1 unit.”
The % inhibition of glucoamylase was calculated by using the following equation:
% inhibition = 100 - Ra
Where: At = absorbance of test, Ac = absorbance of control, Sc = standard concentration, As = absorbance of standard, IU = inhibitory unit, Rs = reducing sugar, Ra = residual activity, TU = test unit.
RESULTS
GCMS analysis
Structures of phytochemicals recognized by GCMS analysis of PN01 extract present in spectra’s available in supplementary file, which identified a total of 16 bioactive phytochemicals. Phytochemicals identified on GC-MS was based on their chemical structure, chemical formula, molecular weight, peak area, retention time and retention index. The most abundant compounds included caryophylline (100%), bicyclohexane,4-methylene-1-(1-methylethyl) (62.04%), d-limonene (53.41%), and piperine (24.82%), While a total of 14 phytochemicals were detected from the SA02 extract present in supplementary file, the chemical composition includes eugenol (100%), caryophylline (31.39%), and phenol, 2-methoxy-4-(2-propenyl), acetate (23.76%), along with smaller amounts of other secondary metabolites.
Glucoamylase
PN01 showed stronger glucoamylase inhibition at 60 min (91.59 ± 0.99), day 3 (89.94 ± 1.23), 37ºC temperature (72.71 ± 6.76) and at pH 5 (65.60 ± 4.56) while, SA02 exerted stronger glucoamylase inhibition at 37ºC (96.05 ± 1.27), 60 min (92.39 ± 2.52), pH 7 (35.02 ± 41.51) and day 3(91.36 ± 4.39) (Figures 1-4 and Tables 1-4).
| Temp | Extract | Mean Inhibition | Standard Inhibition | n | Standard Error Inhibition | Mean Standard |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 27 | PN | 42.19 | 2.236 | 3 | 1.291 | 42.19 ± 2.24 |
| 27 | SA | 3.21 | 0.906 | 3 | 0.523 | 3.21 ± 0.91 |
| 37 | PN | 72.71 | 6.755 | 3 | 3.9 | 72.71 ± 6.76 |
| 37 | SA | 96.05 | 1.27 | 3 | 0.733 | 96.05 ± 1.27 |
| Time | Extract | Mean Inhibition | Standard Inhibition | n | Standard Error Inhibition | Mean Standard |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 10 | PN | 28.16 | 1.76 | 3 | 1.02 | 28.16 ± 1.76 |
| 10 | SA | 32.41 | 29.89 | 3 | 17.26 | 32.41 ± 29.89 |
| 30 | PN | 48 | 11.04 | 3 | 6.38 | 48.00 ± 11.04 |
| 30 | SA | 44.7 | 20.91 | 3 | 12.07 | 44.70 ± 20.91 |
| 60 | PN | 91.59 | 0.99 | 3 | 0.57 | 91.59 ± 0.99 |
| 60 | SA | 92.39 | 2.52 | 3 | 1.45 | 92.39 ± 2.52 |
| 90 | PN | 90.55 | 0.39 | 3 | 0.22 | 90.55 ± 0.39 |
| 90 | SA | 91.217 | 0.03 | 3 | 0.02 | 91.22 ± 0.03 |
| 120 | PN | 59.343 | 23.2 | 3 | 13.39 | 59.34 ± 23.20 |
| 120 | SA | 61.733 | 0.06 | 3 | 0.03 | 61.73 ± 0.06 |
| pH | Extract | Mean Inhibition | Standard Inhibition | n | Standard Error Inhibition | Mean Standard |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 5 | PN | 65.6 | 4.56 | 3 | 2.63 | 65.60 ± 4.56 |
| 5 | SA | 33.6 | 18.14 | 3 | 10.47 | 33.60 ± 18.14 |
| 6 | PN | 62.34 | 3.3 | 3 | 1.9 | 62.34 ± 3.30 |
| 6 | SA | 19.13 | 17.51 | 3 | 10.11 | 19.13 ± 17.51 |
| 7 | PN | 51.74 | 0.13 | 3 | 0.07 | 51.74 ± 0.13 |
| 7 | SA | 35.02 | 41.51 | 3 | 23.97 | 35.02 ± 41.51 |
| 8 | PN | 35.54 | 2 | 3 | 1.15 | 35.54 ± 2.00 |
| 8 | SA | 7.45 | 2.39 | 3 | 1.38 | 7.45 ± 2.39 |
| 9 | PN | 54.7 | 13.86 | 3 | 8 | 54.70 ± 13.86 |
| 9 | SA | 7.47 | 4.16 | 3 | 2.4 | 7.47 ± 4.16 |
| Days | Extract | Mean Inhibition | Standard Inhibition | n | Standard Error Inhibition | Mean Standard |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | PN | 66.73 | 16.13 | 3 | 9.31 | 66.73 ± 16.13 |
| 1 | SA | 87.75 | 1.77 | 3 | 1.02 | 87.75 ± 1.77 |
| 3 | PN | 89.94 | 1.23 | 3 | 0.71 | 89.94 ± 1.23 |
| 3 | SA | 91.36 | 4.39 | 3 | 2.53 | 91.36 ± 4.39 |
| 6 | PN | 82 | 5.7 | 3 | 3.29 | 82.00 ± 5.70 |
| 6 | SA | 87.53 | 1 | 3 | 0.58 | 87.53 ± 1.00 |
| 9 | PN | 60.59 | 6.39 | 3 | 3.69 | 60.59 ± 6.39 |
| 9 | SA | 87.55 | 2.84 | 3 | 1.64 | 87.55 ± 2.84 |
DISCUSSION
Currently rate of CC03 is increasing internationally which is hazardous and seeking attention to focus on research studies for a novel drug obtained from natural sources for their treatment. Recently researchers are seeking new digestive enzymes inhibitors from plants to employ against CC03, diabetes and hypertension (Govindappa et al., 2020). Various secondary metabolites were identified in the GC fraction of the PN01 and SA02 methanol extracts such as piperine, eugenol, caryophylline, caryophylline oxide, hexadeconic acid, oleic acid etc. which are major antioxidant, anticancer and antihypertensive agents (Ali et al., 2021; Oghogho and Nimenibo, 2019; Sumner, 2000). PN01 and SA02 extracts phytochemicals investigation shown phenolic compounds and their derivatives presence showed vital role as anticancer agent (Tariq et al, 2017; Adefegha and Oboh, 2013).
Eugenol and volatile oils of SA02 possess anticancer property against HeLa and MCF-7 cell lines for CCO3 and BC04 treatment (Arunava et al., 2018; Parinnesh et al., 2014). Seven amide alkaloids including piperine which is major component of PN01, its introduction desensitized CC03 HeLa/PTX cells to paclitaxel, its sensitize mechanism was investigated. Piperine was combined with paclitaxel, the combination treatment promoted cell apoptosis by down regulating phospho-Akt and Mcl-1, this sensitization mechanism was investigated, where piperine showed more significant sensitization effect (Zhoufan et al., 2019). BC04 study showed that administering eugenol and piperine directly into the tumor (intratumoral administration) significantly slowed or stopped the growth of TNBC xenografts in mice that lacked a fully functional immune system (Shailima et al., 2025; Anna et al., 2015). CRC05 studies found that eugenol, volatile oils and piperine reduce β-catenin's movement into the nucleus, providing mechanistic insight into its inhibitory action on the Wnt/β-catenin pathway (Thunyatorn et al., 2025; Gracielle et al., 2020). Eugenol and piperine can stop the PC06 cells growth by halting their cell cycle progression and inhibiting survival (Hyun et al., 2024; Ji et al., 2021). α-pinene is monocyclic terpenoid which possess anticancer property by suppressing HeLa cell growth, causing cell cycle arrest in the G0/G1 phase and inducing apoptosis, this observation of pro-apoptotic proteins upregulation and anti-apoptotic protein down regulation revealed that α-pinene activates the intrinsic apoptotic pathway (Xiaosu et al., 2022). Eugenol and α-pinene can be a potential therapeutic agent against BC04 because it inhibit BC04 cell growth and proliferation by decreasing miR-21 expression and increasing the tumor suppressor PTEN (Phosphatase and tensin homolog) expression. This modulation of gene expression leads to a reduction in BC04 cell invasion (Ahmad et al., 2025; Muhammad et al., 2024). α-pinene inhibitory effect on HT-29 colon cancer cell growth stems from reduced cell viability, increased apoptosis and the blocking of the PI3K/AKT pathway (Sara et al., 2025). In vitro studies of PC06 revealed that α-pinene prevented cell death and decreased cytokine production in pancreatic acinar cells that were artificially damaged by cerulean (Gi et al., 2012).
Copaene is a tricyclic sesquiterpene found in PN01 and SA02, research work revealed that it possesses antioxidant, anticancer and antigenotoxic activity (Turkez et al, 2014). This research investigated the anticancer potential of myrcene by evaluating their effects on cell lines (HeLa and HDFa) through cytotoxicity, proliferation, migration and morphology analysis (Luca et al., 2023). Studies showed that limonene (96.60%), with minor components (α-pinene, bicyclohexane, β-pinene, β-myrcene, 3-carene and o-cymene) possess the highest inhibitory activity against HepG2, MCF-7 and HeLa cells (Worachot et al., 2022). α-pinene, 3-carene, d-limonene and β-myrcene in BC04 showed the significant inactivation of TNFα-induced NF-κB (Jeong et al., 2015). α-pinene, α-phellandrene, δ-3-carene and d-limonene revealed cytotoxic activity in lung carcinoma (H460), CC03 (HeLa) and CRC05 (HCT116) underin vitro conditions (Emir et al., 2024). Beta-caryophyllene triggers apoptosis while suppressing proliferation and metastasis by modulating multiple cellular pathways. The anticancer activity is driven by ROS induction and JAK1/STAT activation. D-limonene exerts its anticancer effects by increasing the expression of autophagy-linked genes, Bax and caspase 3, while decreasing cyclin D1 and Bcl-2 expression. These compounds exhibit synergistic activity when combined with anticancer drugs, suggesting their promise as novel cancer-fighting agents (Gbadebo et al., 2025).
Research has shown that PN01’s β-myrcene is a potent antimicrobial, anti-obesity, and gastroprotective agent (Bonamin et al., 2014). Piperine has the potential to treat diabetes through hydrolytic enzymes inhibition (Elisa et al., 2021). Caryophylline inhibits alpha glucoamylase, which is found in PN01 and SA02, possess anti-diabetic, and antioxidant property (Oghogho and Nimenibo, 2019). According to research, caryophyllene oxide, which is found in PN01 and SA02 has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. It inhibits α-glucoamylase, which causes lymphoma and neuroblastoma cells to undergo apoptosis (Jaradat et al., 2020). Glucosidase enzymes significantly reduced blood sugar levels in an in vitro study of secondary metabolites (Aljarah and Hameed, 2018).
Results of PN01 and SA02 showed significant glucoamylase inhibition at various parameters. SA02 showed the highest glucoamylase inhibition at 37ºC temperature (96.05 ± 1.27), on day 3 (91.36 ± 4.39), at 60 min (92.39 ± 2.52), and at pH 7.00 (35.02 ± 41.51). Furthermore, PN01 exerted maximum glucoamylase inhibition at 60 min (91.59 ± 0.99), day 3.0 (89.94 ± 1.23), 37ºC temperature (72.71 ± 6.76), and at pH 5.00 (65.60 ± 4.56). Both plants possess glucoamylase inhibitory potential by hydrophobic and charge interaction with amino acid residue, phenols and flavonoids in PN01 inhibit glucoamylase, lowering blood glucose levels and aiding in the treatment of diabetes (Elisa et al., 2021; Stephen et al., 2015). By interfering with the active enzyme site and preventing the breakdown of carbohydrates into glucose, eugenol, and polyphenols found in SA02 inhibit glucoamylase, which lowers postprandial hyperglycemia by delaying the absorption of carbohydrates from the gastrointestinal tract (Stephen and Ganiyu, 2012).
The glucoamylase enzyme present in the intestinal wall has an optimal temperature of the human body, which is around 37.5ºC; above this temperature can destroy the enzyme structure, so it gives the best result at human body temperature (Kumar and Satyanaryana, 2009). PN01 and SA02 extracts exert hydrolytic enzyme inhibition under varying durations; both extracts exhibited more glucoamylase inhibition at 60 min. Enzyme inhibition can be time dependent; some spices show powerful inhibition initially that decreases gradually, while others may have a delayed but prolonged effect. Both extracts result in glucoamylase enzymes inhibition on all days, but the highest inhibitory potential is achieved on day 3 (S. aromaticum) and day 6 (P. nigrum), it may be influenced by its concentration or the presence of its chemical constituents. This inhibition aids in postprandial glucose level management and potentially helps in controlling blood sugar level (Elisa et al., 2021; Stephen and Ganiyu, 2012; Sudhir and Mohan, 2002). Both extracts showed maximum glucoamylase inhibition at pH 5 and minimum inhibition at pH 8 and 9. Maximum glucoamylase inhibition ranges between 4 and 6 pH; extremely high or low pH levels resulted in total loss of activity for most enzymes (Imran et al., 2012). Alpha glucoamylase enzyme digests the carbohydrates and postprandial glucose level in diabetic patients, so due to glucoamylase enzyme inhibition, postprandial hyperglycemia can be controlled, and hence the risk of diabetes (Navjot et al., 2021).
Both extracts exerted significant glucoamylase enzyme inhibition, but SA02 has more potential to inhibit glucoamylase than PN01 due to their high concentration of its phyto-constituents included alkaloids, volatile oil, phenol, and terpenes (monoterpenes, and sesquiterpenes). Especially eugenol, caryophylline and phenol present in SA02 interact effectively with the hydrolytic enzyme structures to inhibit their activity (Hafizah et al., 2016; Mnafgui et al., 2013).
CONCLUSION
The present study showed that PN01 and SA02 phytochemicals identified by GCMS will be advantageous in different field especially in medical and pharmaceuticals and greatly valuable for treatment of various type of cancer. Secondary metabolites ofPN01 and SA02 recognized by GCMS analysis, especially piperine, beta-myrcene, 3-carene, copaene, caryophylline and α-pinene have shown promising anticancer effects against CC03, BC04, CRC05, and PC06 cell lines in preclinical studies. Research has demonstrated that secondary metabolites of PN01 and SA02 can reduce tumor cell viability, induce apoptosis and inhibit migration in CC03, BC04, CRC05 and PC06. PN01 and SA02 exhibited glucoamylase enzymes inhibition, So, their extracts may be accounted for as economic and natural antidiabetic and antiobesity medicine to manage postprandial hyperglycemia by glucoamylase inhibitory potential and their ideal parameters. However, their application in clinical oncology and diabetic centers is limited due to a lack of human studies, bioavailability issues and potential drug interactions.